Terra Mosana TERRA MOSANA Deliverable N° DT 2.2.1 (A) Title: storyline on theme 10: Language Product: “Language changes in the Euregio Meuse Rhine, between ca. 100 BC and 1000 AD” Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 1 Terra Mosana Terra Mosana WP2 Storylines synopsis Theme: 10 – Language Storyline: “Language changes in the Euregio Meuse Rhine, between ca. 100 BC and 1000 AD”. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 2 Terra Mosana Proof of deliverable: Theme: 10 - Language Storyline: Language changes in the Euregio Meuse Rhine, between ca. 100 BC and 1000 AD. Theme coordinator + storyline secretary: Name of the coordinator of the theme: Eric Wetzels Name the main author of the text: Eric Wetzels Involved: Municipality of Maastricht/Eric Wetzels, RWTH/Aachen/Clemens Bayer, Erfgoed Vlaanderen/Alain Vanderhoeven, Basel University/Michiel de Vaan Definitive version; 29-11-2021 Version + date: Note 1: this deliverable 2.2.1. (A) exist of a written document on Euregional language changes. In addition to this written document, a podcast on Euregional language was made. This podcast is accounted for in deliverable 2.2.2 (B) Note 2: in earlier versions of this document, continuously the title ‘language development’ was used, as it was in the earliest version of this article from 2017. Language specialist Leonie Cornips made clear that that is an improper word to use in this field of research. ‘Language development’ refers to the development of language of children. Therefore, the title was changed into ‘language changes’. The subject is the ‘historical development’. “Language itself does not develop”, states Cornips. “Language is not an organism. There are always speakers behind languages and they come into contact with each other, resulting in language contact”. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 3 Terra Mosana Introductory note. The search which formed the base for this language changes overview originates in a question I posed myself in 2017. The research question was “what languages were spoken in the first centuries of our era in the Euregio Meuse-Rhine”, at the time when the original Gaulish and Germanic tribes were overruled by Roman invaders and during and after the successive Germanic intrusions of the 3rd – 5th century. Besides making war and being agressive towards each other, people also co-lived and co-worked together in times of peace. Around 500 AD the Roman authority was officially gone, but of course many traces of the past four centuries remained. The Roman authority was gone, but not the Roman legacy, which was visible (audible) in at least the language and in the written sources. Roman Latin (the Latin dialect of the city of Rome) was used for administration and official aspects. Latin was the first (and only) language that was used in the Katholic church. The dissemination of katholicism and the christianization of the larger region was accompanied by the use of Latin. In this respect it were not the Romans who disseminated the Latin language the most, it was the religion (or more precise: the people who executed this religious practices). What did all of this mean for the languages that were spoken in the Euregio in, for instance, 500 AD? The first search and answer to this question was published in a short article on-line: E. Wetzels 2017, “Language development in the current Euregio Meuse-Rhine between ca. 100 BC and ca. 750 AD”, published on Academia.edu (version 1.3/ 16th of August 2017).1 For that article, contact was made with language specialist Michiel de Vaan of the University of Lausanne. The search kept the author busy for some time. This language search was more elaborated for the the project Terra Mosana, as I realized that language was one of the most important cultural aspect of peoples, tribes and communities: language does bond (and does separate, of course, when you do not belong to ‘the group’). In this matter I dare to say that language is one of the most important aspects of cultural identity. Leonie Cornips states it - as language specialist - otherwise: “people construct regional or social identies through the use of language”. Terra Mosana offered an excellent opportunity to do further research. The result is displayed in this article and in the two audio-results: a soundscape (audio-artwork) on language diversity in the Euregio (deliverable 2.2.2) and a podcast on the language within the Euregio Meuse Rhine (deliverable 2.2.2 (B)). The most detailed explanation however is presented in this written article. As I am not a language specialist – but an ever curious archaeologist - it is dangerous to make statements and it is bold to present this overview. That is the reason why this article presents the overview as I composed it. And as the article presented in 2017, also this article is a dynamic overview and open to debate. The author. (eric.wetzels@maastricht.nl) 1 Link: (44) (PDF) Language-development in the Euro-regio Meuse-Rhine between ca. 100 BC and ca. 750 AD. | Eric Wetzels - Academia.edu Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 4 Terra Mosana Deliverable 2.2.1 (A) Language changes in the Euregio Meuse Rhine, between ca. 100 BC and 1000 AD. Short overview following the synopsis format of Terra Mosana: 1. Introduction: quest for the origins and historical development of the languages spoken in the Euregio. 2. Subject and context: the Euregio has three official languages (Dutch, French, German) but many regional languages like Walloon and Limburgish and even many more local dialects. All originate from the language history of the Euregio. Where once (before Christ) was spoken in Celtic/West-Germanic dialects, suddenly Latin was introduced. This suppressed the older languages, of which only a substrate survived in the EMR. Afterwards – as a result of multiple Frankish intrusions – younger Frankish dialects were introduced within the EMR. This mix replaced older languages, but sometimes remnants of older languages survived as substrate elements. Also language islands survived, in a further homogenious environment. After 500 AD we see a gradual split in Romance (Latin based) languages and Germanic/Franconian based languages, which eventualy lead – in Northwestern Europe - to German, Dutch, Frisian and English, as we know them today. 3. Historical information: see the next pages. The language history of the EMR is rather complex and intertwined. Merovingian and Carolingian kings and emperors appear in the story, meaningful incidents and striking historical documents, but also the thousands or millions of unknown speakers of the languages appear as figurants. Important to notice is the enormous influence of christianization in this matter. 4. Different perspectives: see the next pages. Migrating tribes brought new languages within the Euregio, wether that were old Germanic tribes like the Atuatuci, invaders like the Romans, intruders like the Frankish, or later the conquests by Spanish and French kings and emperors. They all left their marks in the Euregional languages. 5. Common Euregional experience: the important role of the dialects is that they refer to the crossborder connections that once were lively present in the EMR. That is to say: the borders were never there, only from 1839 we speak of three nationalities. The EMR was once a coherent region. For elaboration on this matter, see the next pages. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 5 Terra Mosana 6. Where to visit: languages and dialects are to be heard and enjoyed on the streets. There’s no need for visting an institution. Someone who wants to hear the Eurgional languages, can listen to the Terra Mosana soundscape (an audio-artwork, made by Lubert Priems), or the podcast on Euregional language, also from the hand of Priems. 7. Storyline products: a written document (this one; TM-deliverable WP2 DT 2.2.1 (A)), an audio-artwork (TM-deliverable WP2 DT 2.2.2) and a podcast (TM-deliverable WP2 DT 2.2.2 (B)). 8. Literature: see last page of the document. 6 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Terra Mosana Language changes in the Euregio Meuse Rhine, between ca. 100 BC and 1000 AD.2 Eric Wetzels, November 2021 Introduction This article on language changes in the Euregio Meuse Rhine, is specifically focussed on the transition from late Celto-Germanic, via Latin and Germanic/Franconian3 towards (early) French and early Dutch, German and English. The researched timeframe is between ca. 100 BC and 1000 AD. In this period a lot of mixed variants exist, as well as transition forms. In the end this leads to three main languages used in the EMR (French, German and Dutch) next to a variety of regional languages (like Walloon) and many dialects (Rheinländisch, Limburgish) and even local variations (like ‘Mestreechs’). Some of these languages have developed from one an other and others existed next to each other. To start with. Two language notions: vulgar and vernacular. Spoken language and popular language. Or: ‘autonomous’ changes of language in time. Language is dynamic and not static. Language changes through use, contacts, isolation and mingling. In prehistory languages were only spoken and no written records exist. That is why it is called ‘prehistory’. So we don’t know how languages in those days changed, but we can imagine that it changed in the same way as it changed yesterday and changes today. When people started to write, languages got standardized at a certain moment and dictionary and grammar even got fixated. “No”, says Leonie Cornips, “languages got standardized mostly under nation-state formation [19th c, EW], before variation in spelling was accepted”. But even when a language is ‘fixated’, it will change through autonomous changes, introduction of new objects, names, and by contacts with new cultures and peoples. A group of people that gets isolated from its origin, will have a language that differs from its origin. And even that original language will change autonomously. Languages change because of day-to-day use and these changes depend on time, place and social conditions. Doing language research it is very important to make a clear disctinction between the official language (government, administration, education, or used by elite, church and liturgy) and the language spoken by the people in the towns and in the fields. Socalled ‘vulgar’ Latin is spoken Latin and is the opposite of official written Latin. Vulgar Latin does not relate to any time period in peticular, but is only an indication of the way it was used: spoken, not written. It has always existed, even in Roman times! And it is different from official Latin. In a broader context the phenomenon 2 Based on an earlier article of Wetzels (2017), in which the question was asked, and the quest was presented on what language an ordinary workman or farmer would have spoken in ca. 500 AD. Was that Celtic, Latin, Franconian or any other mixed variant? For this present article, also conversations with Clemens Bayer and reactions of Alain Vanderhoeven were processed. Furthermore literature research and research on the internet was done. Especially the Wikipedia-lemmata on the treated languages seem to be very accurate and consistent, which should mean: reliable. Michiel de Vaan read the last concept version and commented (email, 28-11-2021, 13:21 hr.) “The general tone seems ok to me, I havn’t read every sentence”. And: “The English is not very good”. I (EW) apologize for that shortcoming! 3 Note: consequently the word ‘Franconian’ is used when it concerns language issues, and Frankish when otherwise. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 7 Terra Mosana ‘vernacular’ is used (popular language, vernaculair, Volkssprache, landstaal), to contrast it from the administrative and religious language. In the 8th and 9th century vernacular can therefor mean vulgar Latin, but also a Franconian dialect. Vulgar = spoken, not written Vernacular = popular, not official. A literate man as Gregor of Tours spoke and wrote Latin well, in the second half of the sixth c. AD, contrary to what some historians claim. But Gregor’s Latin (c. 580 AD) was different of that of Cicero (1st c BC), without being vulgar Latin. More appearances of Latin have existed, other than the regular classic (official) and vulgar versions. For instance liturgical Latin. Or biblical Latin, which shows influences of Greek and Hebrew languages. Even official classic Latin (compare Hochdeutsch) changed during time. Within a time frame of some 700 years of our era, Latin changed quite a bit. To understand the distinctive processes of language change within the Euregio Meuse Rhine, the different sorts and variations of language need to be distinguished, as well as to distinguish the two main languages that were spoken: Romance and Germanic. Romance languages The most well known old Romance language is Latin, spoken by the people in Latium, Italy. It was the dialect of Rome - a more specific version of Latin - that was introduced in large parts of Europe. This happened as a result of the invasions of the Roman army by Julius Caesar and his followers, starting in the middle of the first century before Christ. This Latin was imposed on the people of Celto-Germanic origin (more below some refinement on the phenomena ‘Celts’, ‘Germanics’, ‘Gauls’ and ‘Gaulish’ will follow) and was used by the imposers themselves and for administration and offical purposes. That does not mean that for instance the Celtic language (without any doubt a Gaulish dialect of that language) that was previosuly spoken in Gaul, stopped to exist. But the romanization of Gaul caused many Celts/Gauls to learn Latin. Latin soon became an accepted language, because it was used for writing, administration and official purposes. Logically it was sooner adapted by the Celto-Germanic elite, who got higher positions in the Romanized society, than by farmers in the field. It is argumentative that the simple peasant, farmhand, servant or workman kept using the language of his or hers origin. The christianization of Northwestern Europe, with its continious use of Latin, furthermore helped to get Latin established as language. Because of the illiteracy of many people from the lower classes, they will have held on to their own language, which continued to exist as vernacular (popular speech, vernaculair, Volkssprache, landstaal). When these people would have adopted the new language ‘Latin’, it will have inevitably done that with a clear Gaulish substrate (remains of the old language), and perhaps with new language influences, like Germanic/Fränkisch, as a superstrate. During ages of use even these vernaculars evolved into new languages and dialects. Next to the official administrative Latin, the influence of church Latin and of christianization can hardly be overrated. As the (Frankish) Merovingian Kings around 500 AD (Clovis) accepted the Christian faith as their religion, the continious use of liturgical Latin was fixed. In the next centuries the remaining parts of northwestern Europe were christianized. Church Latin also changed, but in a lower pace than the Latin used in the streets and on the land. Liturgical Latin officially stayed in use in the church (rites, papal bulls and proclamations) untill the second Vatican concilium in 1962-1965. The first renaissance (introduced by Charlemagne, † 814 AD) and the second renaissance (14th c) were not only a revival of classical culture, but also attempts were executed to restore proper Latin. For instance Petrarca (1304-1374) redefined the way in which classic Latin was used, written and formulated. He went back to the origins. His Latin reforms held on for centuries. Mainly in religion, education and science. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 8 Terra Mosana In general it is clear that late Latin evolved via Proto Romance, Early Romance and Old French (ca. 750-1200 AD), into Middle French (1200-1500 AD) and new, modern French (1600- today). Old French still had a Gaulish substrate (as did late Latin) and also a heavy Franconian substrate. In 1539 AD French was to become the only official + administrative language in France, instead of Latin. This French was based on the dialect of the Île de France (Paris), the dominant dialect of the Langue d’ Oïl. In ealier days the langue d’Oc (southern dialect) was dominant in French literature (1100-1300). This developement of Latin into French is quiet a straight line. Walloon Walloon developed as a regional dialect from late Latin/Proto Romance/Early Romance (and WestGermanic) next to French and is not derived from French. Its change from late Latin/Early Romance took place between ca. 700/800 and 1200. This language still contained a Celtic/Gaulish substrate and a heavy German/Franconian substrate. It has the most Franconian elements in it of all Romance languages. Walloon is part of de langues d’Oïl, as Old-French, Champenois and Picardois also are. Walloon is spoken in Wallonie (Belgium) and some regios in the French Ardennes (Givet). The Walloon language still exists. Source: Dionysos1 op de Nederlandstalige Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=3223611 Simplified language tree of the EMR Simplified language tree on Romance languages in Northwestern Europe, which influenced the Euregio: 1. Latin (written): a. Classical Latin (50 BC-270 AD) b. Late Latin (270-450) c. Medieval Latin (450-800 AD) d. Neolatin (in literature) (1350 AD; instigated by Petrarc) 2. Latin (church Latin):4 a. Written and spoken church Latin and liturgical Latin (rites, bulls and proclamations): slow changes 0 -1965 AD. b. Biblical (written) Latin (with Greek and Hebrew influences). 3. Latin (vulgar/spoken): a. Original vulgar (Roman) Latin with Gaulish substrate (50 BC – 270 AD) b. Latin/Late Latin, with Gaulish substrate and Franconian superstrate (270-450 AD) 4 To Michiel de Vaan this is just another version of written Latin and not worth mentioning separately from classical written Latin. To Clemens Bayer it is. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 9 Terra Mosana c. Late Latin/Proto Romance/Early Romance, with Gaulish substrate and still more Franconian superstrate (450-800 AD) d. Further Romance language change (based on Latin): i. Langues d’Oc (southern France): not applicable tot he EMR ii. Langues d’Oïl (northern France): 1. Walloon dialect: originated between 700/800 and 1200 in Wallonie and has a double Gaulish and heavy Franconian substrate. 2. French language-change (in many dialects): a. Old French (700/800-1200/1300 AD) b. Middle French (1200-1500 AD). c. Modern French (1600- today), still based on the dialect of Île de France (Paris), the administrative centre. Germanic languages In the first millennium BC, one of the languages spoken on the European continent was Celtic, with many local variations or dialects likely to have existed. Celtic is part of the Indo-European language family that presumably was introduced in Western Europe by migrating Late Neolithic beaker cultures. Around the turn of the first millennium, the language spoken is, what we nowadays call, Proto-Celtic. A reconstructed language, of which no material evidence exists. This Proto-Celtic language developed into different language branches, like Celtic languages, as Gaulish (spoken in Gaul around 300 BC – 400 AD), and like Germanic languages, as West-Germanic, which will eventually - in some 500 years - lead to Low Franconian (Nederfränkisch/Nederfrankisch) and Middle Franconian (Mittelfränkisch/Middelfrankisch). Celtic and prehistoric Germanic languages are in a way related, the exact relationship is to be determined. Apparently they have a common predecessor. The languages intermingled or bordered on each other in the area of the current larger EMR. Wether the inhabitants of the EMR spoke Gaulish or West-Germanic (or both, or a mix?) at the time Caesar invaded this territory, is unclear to the author. An indication can be found in the tribes who lived in the EMR and in their origins. It is important to realize that what we know of this period and of the tribes, is told to us by the reports of Julius Caesar. Many of the qualifications in these reports are Roman qualifications that not necessarily reflect the real situation. A mosaic of Celto-Germanic tribes, of which the names often are the only things we know, populated Northwestern Europa. Their language and relationships to others is unknown. The division into a strict Celtic and Germanic world, is a Roman perspective. Celts certainly lived in Gaul, just south of the Belgae territory. The name Belgae is a name used by Caesar, without security wether the Belgae themselves felt their tribes as a unity or tribal bond. The Belgae which Caesar encountered were a mix of Gallic and Germanic tribes, probably all of them with an older Germanic background: possibly older Germanic tribes pushed previous Gaulish tribes out of their homeland. Roughly you can state that the Belgae where mainly Germanic north of the Ardennes, and mainly Gaulish south of the Ardennes. Gaulish and Germanic tribes and their territories, seen through Roman eyes, ca. 54 BC. Source: Feitscherg - CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=42753 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 10 Terra Mosana Germanic tribes certainly lived east of the Rhine. But the Rhine as border between Gauls and Germans is a Roman construct. Even Caesar mentions various Germanic tribes on the western side of the Rhine: Eburons, Condrusi, Segni, Caerosi and Paemani, he calls them Germani Cisrhenani. That means that on both sides of the Rhine Germanic tribes lived. So it is the most safe to speak about Celto-Germanic tribes who lived in the current Euregio, who spoke (a variety of) Celto-Germanic languages and dialects. The orginal Celto-Germanic language was largely suppressed by Latin, as Roman invaders intruded and conquered large parts of Northwestern Europe. Remnants of the Celto-Germanic language will have remained visible (audible) as a substrate in the spoken language. In the EMR this process of invasion and romanization was started by the conquests of Julius Caesar in the middle of the first century BC. During these conquests, many Celto-Germanic tribes were extinguished and-or replaced by others. Caesar called all the Celto-Germanic tribes in northern Gaul Belgae. The tribe ‘Atuatuci’ – who originally lived in the current larger EMR - was of Germanic origin, what above all means the tribe must have spoken a West-Germanic dialect (and not a Gaulish one). The Atuatuci lived west of the Rhine, in what nowadays is mainly Belgium. Their exact background is unclear, but according to Caesar they are a residual population of Cimbre and Teutonic tribes who where massacred by the Romans around 100 BC. The Cimbres and Teutonics roamed across northwesten Europe in the late 2nd c BC, after having left their homeland Jutland (Denmark). The Germanic (or Celtic?) Eburon tribe lived in the current western EMR as Caesar arrived in 58/54 BC. The Eburons were tributary to the Atuatuci, which means they were dependent and even subordinate to them. Wether the Eburons are to be considered as Celts of Germanics, is not determined yet. Their descendants are named the Germanic tribe of Texuandri, living in Toxandria. That would indicate their Germanic origin. But also a Celtic background is possible. For both options indications are to be found. At least the Eburon elite seems to have been Celtic or Celtified, according to names and toponymes5. The Eburon tribe was largely massacred by Caesar in 54 BC. The tribe of the Tungri was put it its place, in the area between Maastricht and Tongeren. The Tungri were a Germanic tribe from the east side of the Rhine. Specifics on what language the Tungri spoke is unclear yet. It is to be expected they spoke West-Germanic. Of the Celtic languages not much remains after the Roman era. Celtic languages are only spoken in small area’s in Europe: Bretonnic in France and Irish, Welsch, Cornish and Scottish-Gaelic on the Britannic isles. The remaining Celtic languages in Europe. Source: Karl Udo Gerth, Dutch version - TomZeppelin CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/ w/index.php?curid=81433907 5 Further reading: M.-Th. Raepsaet-Charlier, Onomastique et romanisation : éléments d'une comparaison entre les provinces de Gaule Belgique et de Germanie inférieure, dans Noms, identités culturelles et romanisation, Bruxelles, 2001, via Academia.edu/M.-Th. Charlier. Direct link: (33) (PDF) Onomastique et romanisation : éléments d'une comparaison entre les provinces de Gaule Belgique et de Germanie inférieure, dans Noms, identités culturelles et romanisation, Bruxelles, 2001. | Marie-Therese Charlier - Academia.edu. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 11 Terra Mosana Around 50 AD the Euregio Meuse Origin and migration Rhine was completely Romanized, of Franks in 5th c AD. which means the language, administration and bureaucracy were Latinized. Wether Celtic and West-Germanic influences continued to exist is unproven, but likely. The West-Germanic languages were definitively reintroduced in the EMR by Frankish tribes who intruded in the Romanized (Latinized) area of the EMR, for the first time in the 3rd century (ca. 274 AD). Unclear is, wether that were the same languages as the ones of the original German tribes some 300 years earlier. And even when this was the case, it will have been further developed versions. The Germanic tribes that crossed the Rhine, lived at the eastern side of the river (Rechts-Rheinish). In the late 5th c. larger invasions of Ripuarian (southeastern) Franks and Salian (northeastern) Franks took place. Merovingian King Clovis (466-511, king of Salian Franks 481-511) was of Salian Frankish descent. This lead to the use of the main language that ultimately developed into the languages spoken in the EMR, today: Old Low Franconian (Altniederfränkisch/ Oudnederfrankisch; ca. 500-1150). It was the language brought by the Merovingian Kings, the West-Germanic Salian Franks. This language was mixed with, or influenced by Latin and functioned for the descendants of the Franks as vernacular. It was mainly spoken in the southern half of the Netherlands, current Belgium and the northern border area of France, untill the Canal coast. Northern France was for centuries completely bilingual: Franconian was spoken by the Frankish elite, whilst the ordinary indigenous people spoke (Proto/Early) Romance. The Franconian language functioned as a second language next to late Latin and Proto/Early Romance and also as a superstrate that influenced the Latin language (see also Walloon). The Franconian language was hardly written (almost no evidence exists): the Salian Franks seemed to have used the Latin language for written documentation and administration. However, an example of early 6th century Germanic language is known in the form of the Lex Salica: this was an in the Latin language drafted text with some (minor) Franconian words and some short Franconian sentences. These are the earliest relics of the West-Germanic languages, in Latin script. From the 3rd/4th century AD we have evidence of the use of runes to write down the Franconian language, with the origins of runes going back some 400 years earlier. The use of runes continued in the Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon world, but stopped in the West European continent after a few centuries under influence of christianization and the correspondingly intensive use of the Latin alphabet. The Germanic languages that concern the language changes of the EMR can be split into three main branches, that correspond with three regios: Low Franconian (NederFränkisch), Old High German (Altes Hochdeutsch) and West-Middle-German (Westmitteldeutsch). The Old Low Frankisch language developed within 500 years (500-1000 AD) into at least three clearly separated languages branches: Dutch, German and English. Although in the first centuries the differences between these languages will not always have been clear. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 12 Terra Mosana The regional division is best shown in three images (EMR indicated with *: Low Franconian language area (Niederfränkisch/Nederfrankisch). Source: public domain: https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1033537 West Middle German language area (Westmitteldeutsch/Westmiddelduits). Source: public Domain: https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5229655 Old High German language area, ca 950 AD (Altes Hochdeutsch/ Oudhoogduits). Source: public domain: https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3740000 Simplified language tree on Franconian languages (non-Romance languages) in the Euregio: 1. Celtic language, wether Gaulish, West-Germanic, or both, or a mix, until the invasion of Caesar. Remnants of this Celtic (Gaulish/West-Germanic) language remain visible as substrate in the Romanized world. 2. The West-Germanic language (spoken in Rhine areas?) developes into Franconian (0-500 AD). 3. Then three Franconian/Frankisch variations develop: Low Franconian, Central Franconian and Old High German, all of them with consequences in and for the Euregio Meuse Rhine. a. Low Franconian (Nederfränkisch/Nederfrankisch: current southern Netherlands, Belgium, northern France and parts of Nordrhein-Westphalen) (500 – today), to be subdivided in: i. Old Low Franconian (Altniederfränkisch/Oudnederfrankisch; ca. 500-1150) ii. Middle Dutch (Mittelniederländisch/Middelnederlands/Diets; ca, 1150-1500) iii. New Dutch / Nieuw Nederlands (mainly ‘Hollandse’ dialecten; 16/17th c) b. Central Franconian (Westmitteldeutsch/Westmiddelduits), a.k.a. “Middle Fränkisch”. Spoken in Southern Nordrhein-Westfalen, Eastern South Limburg and east of the province of Liège in current Belgium (Deutschsprachige Gemeinschaft Belgiens). i. Ripuarian (Ripuarisch/Noordmiddelfrankisch), area from Aachen (Öcher Platt) – Cologne (Kölsch). ii. Rhine Franconian (Rheinfränkisch, Rijnfrankisch), spoken in eastern northern France and the adjacent western borderzone of current Germany. iii. Moselle Franconian (Moselfränkisch/Moezelfrankisch), outside of EMRterritory. c. High German languages (Hochdeutsch/Hoogduits) i. Old High German (Alt-hochdeutsch/Oudhoogduits); ca. 500 – ca. 1050 AD, at the time in the centre of the Holy Roman Empire). Important note: a new vocabulary developed in high German as result of the chritianization processes ii. Middle High German (Mittelhochdeutsch/Middelhoogduits); ca. 1050-1350, at the time spoken in large parts of current central and southern (higher) Germany. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 13 Terra Mosana 1. Early Middle High German (Frühmittelhochdeutsch/ Vroegmiddelhoogduits; ca. 1050-1170). 2. Classic Middle High German (Klassisches Mittelhochdeutsch/ klassiek Middelhoogduits; ca 1170-1250). 3. Late Middle High German (Spätmittelhochdeutsch/ Laatmiddelhoogduits); ca. 1250-1350. Some notes:    Zeeuwish, Hollandish, Flemish, Brabantish, Limburgish and Standard Dutch are all part of the Low Franconian dialectgroup. Old Low Franconian is considered to be the same oas Old Dutch (Oudnederlands) South Low Franconian (Südniederfränkisch/Zuidnederfrankisch) are Limburgish variations on Low Franconian dialects. This can be subdivided into Western Limburgish (Belgium), Central Limburgish, Eastern Limburgish and Lower Rhinish (Niederrheinisch; Germany). This is best shown in a map: 14 Dissemination and subdivision of the South Low Franconian dialects in Germany, The Nederland and Belgium. 1. East Limburgish Ripuarian, 2. East Limburgish, 3. Central Limburgish, 4. West Limburgish, 5. Truierlandish, 6. Getelandish Source: Hans Erren - Eigen werk, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11376116 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Terra Mosana  Separation lines Important to notice is that the current state borders are of little influence on the original dialects. Three important separation lines should be considered: the Benrather line, the Uerdinger Line and the Panninger line. o The Benrather Line: the separation line (isoglosse) between Middle German in the south (blue in the map) and Lower Franconian in the north (yellow on the map). This line is based on the maken/machen-separation line. This line also follows the Eastern Limburgish state border with Germany in a northern-southern direction. o The Uerdinger line: the separation line (isoglosse) between the Lower Franconian ‘ik’ and the High German ‘ich’. Right: The Uerdinger line which crosses current Germany from West to East. Source: Slomox, based on Germany_location_map.svg, Image:Holland_position.svg, Image:Provinces_de_Belgique_sans_noms.svg + diwa.info and MAND atlas - Germany_location_map.svg, Image:Holland_position.svg, Image:Provinces_de_Belgique_sans_noms.svg + diwa.info and MAND atlas, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5332145 Left: In more detail the Dutch and Belgium provinces of Limburg, which both mainly use the ‘ch’-variation. Source: public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1855732 o The Panninger line: a separation line (isoglosse) between the western Limburgish dialects (mainly Belgian) and the eastern Limburgish dialects. It distincts the ‘st’ (west) from the ‘sjt’ (east) pronounciation. The Panninger line (red line) more or less follows the Meuse as a border river. Only Maastricht lies as a Dutch town completely in Belgian dialect territory. The Panninger ‘side line’ (the yellow line) shows another distinction, namely between the ‘scho’ and ‘sjo’pronounciation. Right: The Panninger line in Dutch Limburg. Source: by Hans Erren - Eigen werk, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10905562 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 15 Terra Mosana The Euregio Meuse Rhine The EMR lies on the crossborder of all the seperation lines which are sketched above. That makes it rather complex and not easy to clearly describe the changes. Next to the Romance and Germanic language changes, other elements need reflection. Political choices in certain times defined which language was to be spoken, and which one was not. Some historical documents shed a bit of light on these decisions. The Synod of Tours (813 AD) An important document is the Synod of Tours, dating from 813. The content of that synod - amongst other things - is on the sermon language that is being used. It is stated that sermons should from then on (813 AD) be held in vernacular (vulgar tongue: rustica Romana lingua et theotisca), to make sure every one could and would understand its content. So from that synod on (of course noted down in church Latin), it becomes clear that: 1. Church masses were regularly spoken in Latin 2. People spoke vernacular, no Latin or church Latin 3. People did not understand Latin good enough the understand the content of sermons. The rites of and prayers during the masses could easily be done in Latin, because every one was familiar with that. But to really reach out to the Christian believers, it apparently was neccessary to use the land’s common tongue, the speak-language, or ‘vernacular’. It is clear that the mentioned vernacular was late Latin or Early Romance in Romance areas, and Franconian language in Frankish areas (Romana lingua et theotisca). The Strassburg Oath (842 AD) The best way to show and explain the language situation in the early Middle Ages is to take a look at ‘The Strassburg Oath’, thé historic key document in this matter in the EMR, dating from 842 AD. We only have a copy of this document of some two centuries later, but there’s no reason to dispute the correctness of its content. The original Strassburg Oath was written down by Nithard (ca. 800-844) - a grandson of Charlemagne via Charlemagne’s daughter Berta - who was present at this ceremony in Strassburg. The oath established the confirmation of the alliance between Louis the German (806-876 AD), monarch of east-Francia (more or less todays Germany), and his youngest brother Charles the Bold (823-877 AD), monarch of West-Francia (more or less todays France), against their oldest living brother Lothar (795-855 AD), monarch of middle-Francia (Lotharingia). They were all sons of Louis the Pious (778-840 AD), who himself was the son of Charlemagne (747-814 AD). Swearing the oath they solemnly promised to assist each other, against Lothar, who wanted to succeed his father as oldest sun, by becoming emperor of the whole empire. This oath in 842 AD led directly to the Treaty of Verdun (843 AD), in which the triple division of the former reign of their grandfather Charlemagne was established. The story is written down by Nithard in Latin, except for the mutual oaths themselves, which are witten in vernacular: Early Romance/Old French as well as Franconian/Early Germanic. In this document distinctive aspects concerning EMR language changes are noticable: Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 16 Terra Mosana 1. The existance of at least two spoken languages and another written language within the larger Euregio and within the world of the rulers of that time: the Carolingians. These languages are: a. Latin, as written by Nithard, b. vulgar Latin or early French, as used by the soldiers of Charles the Bold and noted down by Nithard as Romana lingua. c. Teudisca or early Germanic, as used by the soldiers of Louis de German and noted down by Nithard as Teudisca lingua. 2. Both brothers Louis and Charles were bilingual (or polylingual), but their regiments were not. The story of Nithard explicitely mentions that the oaths were pronounced in each one’s own language and in each others language. That was done to make sure every one was able to understand what was being sworn. But also to convince the soldiers of the other of the words pronounced, to be sincere. That was why Charles the bold swore the oath to his own men in late and vulgar Latin and to the men of Louis in Teudisca. And why Louis the German swore the oath to his own men in Teudisca and to the men of Louis in Latin. It was a matter of clarity and of respect. And of being understood. 3. This document makes clear that the proper understanding of Latin by Germans, and of Teudisca by French, was not present anymore. In 842 AD the languages which had co-lived withing the EMR for at least three or four centuries, and probably were understood within the EMR for quite some time, had each developed and gotten isolated from each other. Possibly the ruling class, the elite and other educated people, were still bilingual or polylingial, but the vernacular or common speach in the EMR, was not Latin anymore, nor a derivative form. The separation between the developed languages was definitive, as were the cultural consequences. The Germanic language/dialect (in the northwestern, northern and eastern) areas of the EMR would evolve into Franconian, and subsequently into Dutch/Flemish, German and many dialect variations. The southwestern areas of the EMR would evolve into into Walloon, into old French, and the latter subsequently into Middleand New French and next to that, into many dialect variations. Francia Occidentalis of Charles the Bold (left), Francia Media of Lothar and Francia Oriëntalis of Louis the German (right). Specific language situation within the Euregio Meuse Rhine What languages were spoken at certain places and moments? Language in religious matters For the Euregio Meuse Rhine the following applies: the christian parishes in the diocese of Liège already did exist in the 6th and 7th c. The church had always used Latin and will have used Latin in Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 17 Terra Mosana the early Middle Ages. Everything that was related to the liturgical practise was done in Latin. Even during the whole of the Middle Ages, but also in later times. We know that there was an obligation for Sunday’s church visites in the 6th and 7th c. The Latin the church visitors heard – Romance and Franconian visitors - was no vulgar Latin, late Latin/Proto Romance/Early Romance, adminstrative Latin nor vernacular, but church Latin. In the early ninth century the church visitors were not able anymore to understand church Latin, so the priests were instructed to use ‘vernacular’ (synode of Tours, 813 AD). Language in state matters Merovingian and Carolingian state matters were also dealt with in Latin, at least untill 800 + AD. According to Clemens Bayer even centuries longer. But not every one knew and understood Latin (anymore), especially in the eastern (Germanic) region. That is proven by the Strassburg Oath of 842 AD. This oath was presented in two languages: a form af Latin (Early Romance, or early Old-French) and Franconian (Nederfränkisch or Ripuarian Franconian, an early version of Old High German (Althochdeutsch). Some specific situations. Aachen was a Romance ‘language island’ in a Germanic environment. Aachen used ‘Early Romance’ (early form of Old French), even until the 10th c., especially in the palace surroundings (‘Am Karolinger Hoff’). But also Franconian was used at the palace (possibly also a literary version of it), as it was the mother tongue of the reigning Carolingian family. It is unlikely that Early Romance was used and spoken by ‘farmers in the field’. We have proof of the use of Early Romance during evening readings during the reign of Charlemagne, at which of course simple peasants were no part.6 Herstal on the other hand was a Germanic ‘language island’ in an otherwise Romance language region. Pepin of Herstal, who lived mostly in Jupille (next to Herstal), was of Germanic/Franconian origin and will have spoken Franconian/Germanic. Likewise he would have understood Early Romance and possibly even Latin.7 His great-grandson Charlemagne was Franconian born and spoke Franconian (Germanic). From 796/800 he lived almost permanently in Aachen, which was a Romance language island in an otherwise Germanic language region. His palace staff was without any doubt Romance orientated. A complex language situation in the years around 800 AD! 6 An explanation (in German) of Clemens Bayer in his email of 12-11-2021, 08:47 addressed to the author: “Aachen: die dort in karolingischer Zeit benutzte Umgangssprache sollte man nicht als "Spätlatein" bezeichnen, es handelt sich eine Protoromanische Sprechweise. Am Aachener Hof Karls d.Gr. wurden verschiedene Sprachen benutzt: Gewiss eine - oder eher mehrere - Formen des Fränkischen (das ja die Muttersprache der Herrscherfamilie war), darunter auch eine "literarische"; vermutlich mehrere Varianten des Protoromanischen; als Hauptsprache aber natürlich das Lateinische, Sprache aller administrativen, legislativen, judikativen und politischen Belange, der Wisenschaften, der Liturgie, der am weitesten verbreiteten Literatur. Latein war bei Hofe auch die Sprache der Tischlesungen und der (abendlichen) literarischen Unterhaltung (an der selbstverständlich die "einfachen Leute" nicht beteiligt waren).” Comment of Michiel de Vaan (email, 28-11-2021, 13:21hr.): “Nee, je kunt in de achtste eeuw niet meer van Protoromanisch spreken. Dat is veel te laat.” Translation: In the 8th c the phenomenon ‘Proto Romance’ is not applicable anymore”. The article is modified in this repect and the phenomenon Early Romance is chosen for this timeframe (600-800 AD). 7 An explanation (in German) of Clemens Bayer in his email of 12-11-2021, 08:47 addressed to the author: “Herstal. Zwar ist dieses Toponym Germanisch, doch heißt das nicht schon mit Gewissheit, dass die Ortschaft ("villa") insgesamt germanischsprachig war (wann?). Und es ist bisher (aus meiner Sicht jedenfalls) noch gar nicht geklärt, welchen Ort genau das Toponym bezeichnet - wohl kaum den von der Forschung bisher (durchaus mit auf der Hand liegenden Gründen) als Hauptort der "villa" angesehene Ort mit der alten Pfarrkirche "Notre-Dame", der hieß nämlich "Licourt" und das ist romanischen Ursprungs! Schon längerIch beschäftigt mich das Problem "Herstal", bei dem es auch um die Lage der karolingischen Pfalz geht; ich denke, einige Einsicht gewonnen zu haben, und hoffe, zusammen mit Marie-Guy diesen Fragenkomplex in den kommenden Jahren, sobald die Zeit es erlaubt, wissenschaftlich zu bearbeiten. Pippin von Herstal. Angesichts seiner politischen Rolle hatte er bestimmt auch eine gewisse Sprachkompetenz im Protoromanischen und wohl auch im Lateinischen.” Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 18 Terra Mosana Conclusion: In the Euregio Meuse Rhine all present languages intermingled and above all, interinfluenced eachother in the period before 1000 AD continiously. Only after ca. 1000 AD the language barrieres got a more definitive outline and the languages developed within their own established territories. So, to execute language research in the Euregio Meuse Rhine in the first millenium, it is important to keep in mind: 1. The existance of language barrieres (fault lines between larger homogenious regions: Germanic versus Romance languages. 2. The existance of language islands (deviant languages in a further homogenious language region) 3. The difference between official languages and vernacular. 4. Social language customs and group customs (for instance in liturgic traditions (Latin) or official state matters (Latin). A solution: Meuse Rhenish? A recent variation is to call the language and literary tradition in the southern Dutch/Belgium and Rhineland area ‘MeuseRhenish’ (Francique Rhéno-Mosan, Maas-Rijnlands, Rheinmaasländisch)8. This could be used as a more coherent shell for the mixed and intermingled language complexity in the EMR, but it completely neglects the Francophone (Romance) area. So this is insatisfactory as well. It seems to be to complex a situation, to just explain it in a single picture or system. The End 8 Meuse-Rhenish - Wikipedia. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 19 Terra Mosana Literature Dam, Raymond van (1988/2004): introduction to Gregorius of Tours, Glory of the Confessors. Gregorius of Tours, Glory of the Confessors, translated by Raymond van Dam, 1988. Schrijver, Peter (2007): Keltisch en de buren: 9000 jaar taalcontact (oratio 2007). Schrijver, Peter (2015): Pruners and trainers of the celtic family tree: the rise and development of celtic in the light of language contact, XIV International Congress of Celtic Studies, Maynooth 2011. Paper available via Academia.edu, search-term Peter Schrijver. Stevenson, Victor (1990): The world of words, 1990, Dutch edition (translated version: “Woorden. Een geïllustreerde geschiedenis van de westerse talen”), Atrium books, 2007. Vaan, Michiel de (2015): Before the birds started nesting, in: Willemsen, A, & Kik, H (eds.), Golden Middle Ages in Europe. New research into early-medieval communities and identities. Proceedings of the second “Dorestad congress” held at the National Museum of Antiquities. Leiden, The Netherlands. 2-5 july, 2014. Wetzels, Eric (2017), “Language development in the current Euregio Meuse-Rhine between ca. 100 BC and ca. 750 AD. An apply and adapt model”, version 1.3 / 16th August 2017, published on Academia.edu/Eric wetzels. Wikipedia (Dutch and English) lemmata on Germanic languages: Old High German, Middle High German, West Middle German, Ripuarian, Rhine Franconian, Middle Franconian, Old Dutch, Old Low Franconian, South Low Franconian, Limburgish, Flemish, Benrather Line, Uerdinger Line, Panninger Line. Moment of use: 3 november 2021. Wikipedia (Dutch and English) lemmata on Romance languages: Latin, classical Latin, vulgar Latin, church Latin, medieval Latin, Neolatin, vernacular, Roamnce languages, French, old French, middle French, langues d’Öil, langues d’Oc, Walloon. Moment of use: 3 november 2021. Note: the article is counter read by and discussed with several members of the Terra Mosana writing comittee: Alain Vanderhoeven, Clemens Bayer, Steven Vandewal, Gilbert Soeters, Michiel de Vaan. The article of Wetzels, 2017 was counter read by Herman Clerinx and Michiel de Vaan. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 20 Terra Mosana Appendix 1: an overview based (and modified!) on the article ‘Wetzels, 2017’.9 The idea is to define certain time windows during one millenium and to establish and explain the languages that were used during that time window. Of course a simplified version of the world (in this case the Euregio) also brings problems along. Surely this ovreview table will cause discussion and debate. That is what it meant to do. Period 100 BC   Ca. 58-54 BC: 0 AD 100 AD 200 AD Ca. 270 AD: 300 AD Language Spoken = Celtic (Gaulish) language, next to West-Germanic10. Written = Celts used the Latin or Greek alfabet to “write” (protohistoric period)11. Historic event/remarks Celtic tribes lived in great parts of Europe. In the Euregio, Gaulish tribes lived, mainly in the southwestern region. The Celto-Germanic tribes that lived in the Central and Eastern Euregio (west of the Rhine!) during Caesars invasions, were partly of Germanic origin (the Atuatuci, the Eburons, and their ‘replacement’ the Tungri).12 Invasions of Roman conquerors (Caesar c.s.)  Spoken = Gaulish + West-Germanic + Latin ( + vulgar Latin) by army, officials and commerce.  Written = Latin (administration/government + written bureaucracy).  Spoken = (vulgar) Latin + Gaulish + WestGermanic  Written = Latin. Latin is lingua franca (international contacts, commerce, contracts, literature).  Spoken = Vulgar Latin (as 1 language?).  Spoken = Gaulish + West-Germanic (as 2nd language?).  Written = Latin. Latin is lingua franca. st Invasions (enduring) of Germanic tribes  Spoken = Vulgar (late) Latin, generally accepted. Suggestion:  spoken language on the street (ordinary man) is Gaulish + West-Germanic + little vulgar Latin.  The official language and language of the leading class / elite is Latin. st 21 A language shift (as 1 language) is suggested! Caused by what? By enduring Roman domination? Lots of ‘foederati’ brought in their own (even different) languages as well. Germanis as well as others. It is unclear wether the Francs who entered the Euregio in the 3rd century spoke the same West-Germanic dialect as the original WestGermanics tribes did, around the year 50 BC. That is why in this period it is best to speak E. Wetzels 2017, “Language development in the current Euregio Meuse-Rhine between ca. 100 BC and ca. 750 AD”, published on Academia.edu (version 1.3/ 16th of August 2017) 10 Herman Clerinx, Kelten en de Lage Landen, Leuven, Davidfonds 2005. Based on Germanic placenames during Caesars’ conquest. 11 Statement of Herman Clerinx by mail of August 9th 2017. Runes (in this area) seem to appear in a later period. 12 Alain Vanderhoeven in an email of 9-11-2021, 13:51 to the author (in Dutch): De Atuatuci een Celtic tribe noemen lijkt mij gevaarlijk. Volgens Caesar zijn ze nakomelingen van een achtergebleven groep van de Cimbren en Teutonen, tijdens hun zwerftochten doorheen WEuropa aan het einde van de 2de eeuw. Dat de Eburonen de Euregio van de Autatuci overnamen lijkt mij ook misverstand. Het is ook enigszins in tegenspraak met het feit dat de Eburonen bij de komst van Caesar in het gebied schatplichtig waren aan de Atuatuci. Caesar noemt de Eburonen, Condrusi, Segni, Caerosii en Paemani samen de Germani Cisrhenani, Germanen aan deze zijde van de Rijn. Ook aan de Nervii en Treveri wordt soms een Germaanse herkomst/aard/identiteit toegeschreven. Blijkbaar noemde een reeks stammen aan weerszijden van de Rijn zich in de 2de-1ste eeuw v.Chr. Germani. De Rijn als grens tussen Keltisch en Germaans gebied is dus een Romeinse uitvinding. Over hun taal/talen kunnen we alleen speculeren aan de hand van plaatsnaamkunde, die een soort mengeling van Keltische en Germaans elementen lijkt te suggereren. Voor de verhouding Keltisch, Germaans, Latijn, in de Romeinse tijd valt één en ander te vernemen in een reeks publicaties van M.-Th. Raepsaet-Charlier die de onomastiek van onze streken bespreekt (…). Overigens zijn Kelten en Germanen Romeinse containerbegrippen toegepast op een mozaïek van stammen die zich allesbehalve onderling verwant voelden en ook een diversiteit aan talen spraken, wel Keltisch-Germaans. 9 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Terra Mosana Period  400 AD Ca. 450 AD 476 AD 500 AD Ca. 500 AD Language Spoken = Germanic/early Franconian (as 2nd language?). Definitive language presence in current Euregio Meuse-Rhine in the 3rd c. Historic event/remarks about ‘Early Franconian’ dialects. It is even unclear wether this Early Franconian dialect is the one that developed into Old Low Franconian, that successively developed into Dutch, German and English.  Spoken = Gaulish (as 3rd language?). Gaulish is disappearing?  Written = Latin. Latin is lingua franca.  Written = Runes for Frankish language  Spoken = Vulgar Latin  Spoken = early Franconian (West-Germanic.) (as 2nd language?). Leading figures are from Frankish origine.  Spoken = Gaulish disappears. It remains as a substrate in vulgar Latin and perhaps in early Franconian. Language-remains; placenames, personal names, object-names.  Written = Late Latin (administrative language) + church Latin.  Written = Runes for Frankish language Invasions of the Huns. These invasions had a lot of impact on society, but left no visible traces in administration and/or language. End of Roman administration13.  Spoken = Frankish (1st language?)14 + vulgar Latin (Proto Romance?). Spoken language varies 22 within Euregio. Start of language separation becomes visible: the southeastern Euregio becomes Romance orientated and the northeastern part becomes Franconian orientated. But language islands do exist (Aachen and Herstal), which is proven by their later (10th c) existance.  Spoken = Gaulish completely disappeared? Not according to Gregorius of Tours.15  Written = Late Latin + church Latin. Latin is lingua franca (international contacts, commerce, contracts, literature). Latin stayed influential and augmented the existing language, because of the cults and rites of Christianity, which were adopted by the Frankish kings.  Written = Franconian (?) (in runes?). No official texts in Franconian. All official texts (literature, epitafs, chronicles) are in (Late) Latin. Personal possessions like belt-buckles carry sometimes runes or other languages16. Appearance Merovingian (Christian) kings. Merovingians grew in importance as local “kings” since ca. 450 AD. 476 AD is the ‘official’ ending of West-Roman Empire, because of the deposition in Rome of the last West-Roman emperor Romulus Augustus by Odoaker (a German). It is very well possible that in the decades since ca. 425 - 450 AD a power-shift took place by leading factions of the Franks who already lived in the current Euroregio Meuse-Rhine. 14 Low Franconian, being the language of the Frankish tribes which lived in the lower bassin of the Rhine, in the southern half of the Netherlands and in Flemish Belgium. See: Stevenson 1990. 15 Gregorius of Tours, Glory of the Confessors, translated by Raymond van Dam, 1988, p. 53, paragraph 72 and footnote 79. 16 F.i. ‘BOBO’ from Maastricht-Borgharen, a 6thc. name on a bronze belt-buckle. Published by: Wim Dijkman “The Merovingian cemetery of Borgharen (Maastricht) and an early Frank named BOBO, in Ernst Taayke, “Essays on the early Franks”, Groningen Archaeological Studies, Vol. 1, 2003. 13 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Terra Mosana Period 600 AD 700 AD 737 AD  Language Historic event/remarks Spoken = Franconian (1st language) (Low Franconian) + late Latin or better: Early Romance. Both languages will have existed in different regions of the Euregio. In one part the Early Romance will have been the vernacular (vernaculair, volksstaal, landstaal, Landessprache, Umgangssprache), in another Francion was. The Frankish elite will have known and spoken both, which can be extracted from later sources (Strassburg Oath, 843 AD).  Written = Late Latin + church Latin. Latin is still the lingua franca (international contacts, commerce, contracts, literature).  Written = Franconian (?) (in runes?). No official texts in Franconian. All official texts (literature, epitafs, chronicles) are in Latin. Personal possessions like belt-buckles carry sometimes runes or other languages17.  Spoken = Low Franconian and Early Romance.  Written = Late Latin + church Latin. Latin is lingua franca (international contacts, commerce, contracts, literature). Saint-Lambertus originally spoke Franconian (mother tongue), but will have understood Early Romance and he must have understood church Latin as well, because of this position as priest/bishop. Power-shift by the Frankish/Karolingian maior domesticus (mayer of the palace), through the deposition of the formal Merovingian (marionet) king. Ca. 650 - 737 AD: Pippinids/ Karolingians did slowly and then definitively rose to power. Charlemagne originally spoke Franconian  Spoken = Low Franconian and Early (mother tongue), but, but will have Romance. understood Early Romance as well.  Written = Late Latin + church Latin + Franconian(?). Latin is lingua franca (international contacts, commerce, contracts, literature). 750 AD 843 AD Strassbourg Oath (843 AD), which proves the existence of Early Romance and Franconian as vernacular 9spoken) languages, next to written (late) Latin and church Latin. 9th c.  Spoken = Early Romance/Old-French for the Romance area’s. Walloon has developed, or is developing out of Early Romance.  Spoken = Low Franconian, which developed into local dialects as Old Low Franconian or OldDutch (Oudnederfrankisch) and Central Franconian (Ripuarian, Rhine-Franconian). The language separation is more or less definitive, the language islands still exist.  Written = Latin + church Latin + Franconian.  After ca. 1000 AD the language separation becomes ever more clear, and after 1500, the different languages get standardized. 1000 AD and later 17 Ibidem. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version 23 Terra Mosana Appendix 1 (in Dutch): Taalproject Terra Mosana: de ontwikkeling van de taal (en het dialect) in de Euregio. Doelstelling, opzet en vraagstelling: Vertalingen, toelichting, antwoord op de vragen: Verwerking in soundscapes en interview: Datum: Versie: “Wij gaan samen huizen en wegen bouwen” E. Wetzels M. de Vaan L. Priems 26 november 2019 Verbeterd MdV 05-12-2019 Deze zin is gekozen omdat deze een aantal aspecten van de Euregio aangeeft. Uitgangsvraag is om een antwoord te krijgen op de manier waarop de Euregionale talen en/of dialecten zich ontwikkleld hebben en hoe ze zich tot elkaar verhouden. Vooraf is de volgende toelichting op de gekozen zin aan te reiken: 1. “Samen” verwijst naar het feit dat we een gezamenlijke geschiedenis delen. 2. “Huizen bouwen” slaat op de ontwikkeling van jagers-verzamelaars, via neolithische boeren, prehistorische nederzettingen en Romeinse centra, naar middeleeuwse steden, tot aan de huidige stad. 3. “Wegen bouwen” slaat op de verbindingen in de Euregio, die de nu gescheiden landsdelen verbinden, maar die vroeger niet door landsgrenzen gescheiden werden. Daarnaast slaat “wegen bouwen” op de metafoor van verbinden, die bij het verhalen vertellen van WP2 een kernbenadering is. 4. De korte zin is een randvoorwaarde voor de werkwijze van Michiel de Vaan en een slimme manier om op een niet-complexe manier de ontwikkeling van de Euregionale talen en de samenhang daartussen in beeld (beter: in geluid) vast te leggen. Jaartal Ca. 1 AD Taal Proto-Germaans Vertaling Startzin: Wij gaan samen huizen en wegen bouwen wīz allai hūsō wegans-hwe thimrjame Uitleg/toelichting Noot: Michiel de Vaan, bij mail van 10 juli 2019 (via Leonie Cornips  wīz is de vroegste Germaanse vorm voor ‘wij’. De -z wordt later een -r (vanaf 500 in de zinnetjes), die vervolgens in een deel van Limburg bewaard blijft, maar in het westen en noorden wegvalt (net als in Nl. wij).  allai is de nominatief meervoud van ‘alle’. Ik heb hier ‘samen’ met ‘wij allemaal’ vertaald omdat ik niet zeker ben dat ‘tesamen’ al bestond als uitdrukking.  hūsō is de accusatief meervoud van het onzijdige hūsa‘huis’. De uitgang -ō verzwakt voor 500 tot -u en valt daarna geheel weg (althans in woorden met een zware eerste lettergreep). Vandaar dat ‘huizen’ in 1000 geen uitgang heeft. Om dat gemis aan uitgang op te vangen is er later weer -er aangeplakt, wat het Limburgs vrij algemeen bij onzijdige woorden van dit type gedaan heeft.  wegans is de accusatief meervoud van mannelijk wega‘weg’. De uitgang wordt later tot -ã (de klank van Frans an ‘jaar’), vanaf 1000 tot schwa, valt dan weg. Ondertussen is wel de klinker van weg- gerekt in open lettergreep, zodat Modern Limburgs waeg een lange klinker heeft. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Vragen en antwoorden Vragen: Eric Wetzels Antwoorden: Michiel de Vaan EW: Het jaar 1 heeft drie talen: ProtoGermaans, Vastelandskeltisch (nog niet aangeleverd) en Latijn. Blijkbaar werden die in onze regio (door elkaar?) gesproken. Wie sprak wat? MdV: Latijn werd gesproken door de Romeinen (voor zover hier al neergestreken) en (als tweede taal) door de mensen die met hun in nauw contact stonden. Germaans en Keltisch: dat weten we niet precies. Je moet uitgaan van een situatie, in de 2e en 1e eeuw v.Chr., waarin het gros van de mensen 'beneden de rivieren' een vorm van Gallisch, Keltisch dus, gesproken heeft. In hoeverre er al Germanen tussen woonden, weten we volgens mij niet. EW: Germanen komen niet alleen van over de Rijn, dus enig Germaans is zeker mogelijk, zeker in de oostelijke Euregio. Wellicht een minderheidstaal. Vervolgvraag EW: is uitleg Michiel niet in tegenspraak met zijn vertaling 24 Terra Mosana Jaartal Ca. 1 AD Vastelandkeltisch Moet nog volgen. Uitleg/toelichting  -hwe was het oude woord voor ‘en’, verwant met Latijn – que  timrjame : op te splitsen in de stam timr-, het ww.-suffix -ja- en de 1pl. uitgang -me. Ik heb hier voor ‘timmeren’ gekozen omdat ‘bouwen’ oorspronkelijk meer ‘bewonen’ betekende (vgl. in boer, buur). Of men echt ‘timmeren’ zei voor ‘wegen’ is een andere vraag…  Ook de woordvolgorde is hier nog een beetje anders dan later, met het werkwoord achteraan in de zin. Moet nog volgen. Ca. 1 AD Latijn nōs omnēs domōs wiāsque konstruēmus  Ca. 500 AD Taal Vertaling Westgermaans tō samanæ wīr timrem hūsu andi wegã   Regulier Latijn uit Rome/Latium/Lazio Vanaf hier heb ik de uitdrukking ‘te samen’ genomen, bestaande uit het voorzetsel tō (Ned. toe, te) en het adj. samana-. De uitgang -æ was oorspronkelijk de datief ev. Vanaf hier heb ik voor ‘en’ het woord genomen dat de Westgermaanse talen hiervoor zijn gaan gebruiken, oorspr. ‘einde’. Gebruikt als voegwoord is het verder Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Vragen en antwoorden (Proto-Germaans) en de uitleg die daarbij staat? MdV: Nee, waarom? We weten ongeveer hoe het Germaans er op dat moment uitzag, alleen niet, waar iedereen woonde die het sprak... EW: Kan het Vastelandskeltisch toegevoegd worden? MdV: Misschien, maar ik kan dat niet doen. Mensen als Peter Schrijver of David Stifter (Univ. Maynooth) zijn misschien geneigd een gokje te wagen. Vervolgvraag EW: is dit niet de meest gesproken/gebezigde variant in de Euregio? MdV: Jazeker, dat bedoel ik met ‘het gros van de mensen beneden de rivieren’ Vervolgvraag EW: niet alle ‘Romeinen’ waren Romeinen uit Rome/Latium. Ook veel slavische volkeren, Balkanvolkeren en volken uit de Levant en omgeving namen deel aan het Romeinse leger. Spraken allen verbonden aan het Romeinse leger Latijn? MdV: Wie er waar vandaan komt hangt af van de periode. Er waren zeker nog geen ‘Slavische volkeren’ vertegenwoordigd (de Proto-Slaven zaten nog in de Oekraïene en uit niets blijkt direct taalcontact met het Latijn van de eerste eeuwen), en Dacië was toen ook nog niet veroverd. We gaan ervan uit dat het Latijn de verkeerstaal was (cf. de Vindolandatabletten, met brieven van soldaten uit verschillende delen van het rijk), maar dat zal iedereen wel anders hebben uitgesproken (cf. hoe het Engels nu overal ter wereld anders klinkt). EW: Is dit een vroege vorm van de Noordwest-Europese taal (één taal?) en blijkbaar de gezamenlijke voorganger van Nederlands, Duits en Engels? Of is dit een lokaal/regionaal dialect? De overgang tussen jaar 1 en jaar 500 kan ik niet volgen, ondanks 25 Terra Mosana Jaartal Ca. 1000 AD Taal Oudnederlands/ oudnederfrankisch Vertaling toza.mən wi:r bu:wən hu:s ɛnd we.γə Uitleg/toelichting verzwakt in fonologische vorm (i.t.t. einde, end), eerst nog voluit andi, daarna met i-umlaut ende, met apocope end, en uiteindelijk en. Geen verdere taaltechnische uitleg verkregen. Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Vragen en antwoorden de taaltechnische uitleg die je gegeven hebt. Het lijkt sterk op het huidige dialect en met mijn Maastrichtse achtergrond zou ik de taal uit het jaar 500 zo kunnen verstaan, denk ik. Dat vind ik onvoorstelbaar en daar wil ik nog wat uitleg over horen. Wie sprak deze zin zo uit? De boer, de bisschop of de ambtenaar? MdV: Ja, dit is Westgermaans, in een stadium waarin je nog niet van Duits, Nederlands, Fries of Engels kunt spreken (hoewel een voorstadium van Fries en Engels op dat moment wel al licht verscheiden was). Het lijkt me sterk dat je een gesprek uit 500 in zijn geheel had kunnen volgen, maar ja, we hebben hier een paar heel basale woorden, dus het is inderdaad wel te volgen. Al moet je indenken dat ook de zins- en woordintonatie wel anders geweest zullen zijn. Vervolgvraag EW: dit Westgermaans zou dan een gevolg moeten zijn van het wegvallen van het centrale Romeinse gezag en de introductie vanaf ca. 270 AD van een Germaanse bovenlaag en uiteindelijk Germaanse dominantie. Overigens blijft Latijn de schrijftaal van elite en administratie. Concrete vraag EW: sprak men in 500 AD in Aken en Luik ook Westgermaans? MdV: Ja, dat denken we wel. Maar we denken ook dat in de steden het Latijn het nog wel tot in de 6e eeuw zal hebben uitgehouden (maar hoe groot waren Aken en Luik in 500? dat is een vraag voor archeologen). En Luik ligt in gebied dat nooit echt Germaanstalig is geworden, of waar de taalgrens in elk geval al snel ten noorden is komen liggen. EW: is dit Nederdiets? Of dialect? Of een vroege vorm van Nederlands? Hoe verhoudt dit zich tot de taal van Henric van Veldeke? MdV: Je zou het Oudnederlands kunnen noemen, of Oudnederfrankisch. Maar dan specifiek van het zuidoosten van wat later het Nederlandstalige gebied wordt genoemd. Anderhalf à twee eeuwen voor Veldeke, bij wie zich alweer een heleboel veranderingen hebben voorgedaan. 26 Terra Mosana Jaartal Ca. 1500 AD Taal Vroegnieuwnederlands / Vroegnieuwmaastrichts Vertaling sa:məm bu:wəm ve:r hu:zər ɛn wɛ:γ Uitleg/toelichting Ca. 2000 AD Maastrichts sa:mə bu:wə vər hu:zər ɛn wɛ:ç  EW: Hier is Maastrichts (fonetisch geschreven) van rond de milleniumwisseling gebruikt. Nederlands Duits Wij gaan samen huizen en wegen bouwen Wir werden zusammen Häuser und Straßen bauen Ensemble nous construirons/nous allons construire des bâtiments et des rues Together we will build houses and roads a:w wiya pot a:z-n yø:ts   De zin die aan de basis van deze taalreconstructie staat. Frans Ca. 2500 AD Engels Potentiële Euregionele taal        Vragen en antwoorden EW: is dit middeleeuws Nederlands of middeleeuws dialect? Duits en Engels en Frans hebben zich dan al tot aparte talen ontwikkeld. MdV: Dit is eigenlijk al Vroegnieuwnederlands, of beter gezegd Vroegnieuwmaastrichts. Er komt bij dat er in het Limburgs tussen 1500 en 2000 betrekkelijk weinig veranderd is, als je het vergelijkt met bijv. Holland of Vlaanderen. Ik denk dat de echt middeleeuwse kenmerken, zoals naamvallen, tegen 1500 al wel verdwenen waren. Vervolgvraag EW: en wat sprak men toen in Aken en Luik? MdV: In Aken natuurlijk de toenmalige variant van het Ripuarische dialect (we hebben vast wel documenten uit die tijd of ervoor), dus de directe voorganger van de huidige dialecten, en in Luik het Waalse dialect van 1500. Zie de werken van Jean Haust over de oudste bronnen van Luiks en Waals dialect EW: dit is duidelijk dialect en geen Nederlands, Duits of Engels. Moeten hier nog de Nederlandse, Duitse en Franse variant bij, als Euregionale talen? MdV: Die vraag kunnen alleen jullie beantwoorden. Toegevoegde taal Toegevoegde taal Toegevoegde taal Het gaat om (Amerikaans) Engels met Nederlands substraat en enkele klank- en woordveranderingen. a:w = ‘all’, de uitspraak [ow] is veranderd tot [aw] wiya pot = ‘we’re gonna put’. Dat wordt nu al als ‘we’re ‘na put’ uitgesproken, hier is ook de -n- weggevallen en a fungeert als suffix voor het futurum. De retroflexe r van het Engels is een y geworden. De klinker van put is verlaagd tot die van Ned. pot. a:z is wat overblijft van ‘ouzes, met vereenvoudiging van de tweeklank [aw] tot [a:] Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Toegevoegde taal EW: blijkbaar verengelsen we. Daar ben ik het niet mee eens, maar misschien is dat wensvol denken van mij en gaan we inderdaad over. Zou ‘zund’ zijn. MdV: Het is ook niet meteen mijn gedachte (ik denk dat er nog wel iets van Nederlands overblijven kan, maar het hangt van de economie af), maar ik zou niet weten hoe dat Nederlands er dan uitziet. Als het Engels wordt, dan zijn dit een paar mogelijke 27 Terra Mosana Jaartal Taal Vertaling Uitleg/toelichting  -n is wat overblijft van and (nu al vaak zo)  yø:ts heeft dus y- voor r-, de [ow] van road is [ø] geworden, en er is verstemlozing aan het woordeinde door Nederlands substraat. Vragen en antwoorden veranderingen. Het is maar een gedachtenexperiment. Ik wil niet geciteerd worden als voorspeller van de verengelsing van het Nederlands in 2500. Doel en publiek afwegen dus, en eventueel gewoon achterwege laten. Vervolgvraag EW: kun je iets zeggen over de waarschijnlijkheid van de verandering van Duits en Frans in Engelse richting (voor wat betreft de Euregio)? Ik kan me voorstellen dat beide taalgebieden – en misschien het Franse nog wel het sterkste) zullen vasthouden aan hun eigen taal. MdV: Nee, dat is koffiedik kijken The End 28 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version Terra Mosana 29 Terra Mosana - Workpackage 2 - Deliverable No. DT 2.2.1 (A) Language - definitive version